Space Race The Usa Wins The Competition Of The Cold War

Space Race: The USA Wins The Competition To The Moon And The Cold War Few moments define the twentieth century and human scientific advancement like the Apollo moon landing. But now, almost fifty years later, we may forget that this achievement was the result of a relatively short and furious space race, with a mere twelve years separating the first manmade object orbiting Earth (Sputnik 1 in 1957) and Neil Armstrong s 1969 walk on the moon. No human has ventured so far since the end of the Apollo missions in 1972. Few articulate the fact that had it not been for the Cold War the space program would not have advanced at all if ever. At the end of World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union began a decades-long battle for political, military, and technological superiority. In the absence of any direct combat, space exploration provided a focus for the competition between the two superpowers. From the 1950s to the 1970s the United States and the Soviet Union raced to conquer space, but when the Americans won the race, tensions eased between the two nations in the 1970s, the urgency of winning declined and ended with the superpowers cooperating on several projects. In 1961, President John F. Kennedy publicly pledged to land an astronaut on the moon by the end of the decade. That same year John Glenn became the first American to orbit Earth. Under the auspices of NASA, Project Mercury and Project Gemini launched more manned flights into space. In late 1966, ProjectShow MoreRelatedThe War Of The Cold War2020 Words   |  9 Pages How Did America, With the Help Of Ronald Reagan, Win The Cold War? The Cold War was a â€Å"competition† between the Soviet Union and the United States of America, occurring from approximately 1945 through 1991. The Cold War received its name because it did not evolve into armed warfare or physical conflict. The 46-year-long war began immediately after the conclusion of World War II. Some believe it was Joseph Stalin who started it by saying, â€Å"He hated westerners in the same way as Hitler hated JewsRead MoreThe War Of The Cold War2020 Words   |  9 Pages How Did America, With the Help Of Ronald Reagan, Win The Cold War? The Cold War was a â€Å"competition† between the Soviet Union and the United States of America, occurring from approximately 1945 through 1991. The Cold War received its name because it did not evolve into armed warfare or physical conflict. The 46-year-long war began immediately after the conclusion of World War II. 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This also relates to several years later during the cold war. It prompted the Soviet Union to develop their own nuclear warfare. (i.e us comes out with hydrogen bomb and a year later USSRRead MoreAtomic Bomb: Introduction of Nuclear Weapon3278 Words   |  14 PagesIn ww2 , the  atomic bomb  was dropped on japan to put an immediate end to the war and not draw other countries (i.e. the soviet union or china) into fighting combatively against the U.S. As far as foreign relations go, it proved to the world that the U.S was the most powerful country in that time ( superpower) . This also relates to several years later during the cold war. It prompted the Soviet Union to develop their own nuclear warfare. 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He told them that after World War II, the United States had prevented what could have been a retreat into the Dark Ages. Unfortunately, another great power in the world was marching to a different drum beat, creating a society in which everything that isnt compulsory is prohibited

Essay on The life of Joseph Stalin - 554 Words

The life of Joseph Stalin Joseph Stalin. One of the Russias most supreme leaders. But one of its most horrid as well. He brought them up while also letting them down. Some could say where would we be without him. But others wish they never were led by him. He went from nothing to the most powerful man in the now most powerful country. In the early years. He was first born Josef Vissarionovich Djugashvili to a poor shoemaker of a father on December 21 1879. It was a small village called Gori Georgia. He was a only child, whose father was a drunk and would beat him from time-to-time was a poor man. And a mother who did luandre just to earn more money. As a child he contracted smallpox which left him with life-long facial†¦show more content†¦Which was were the government would support the money flow from the small tenant farmers would bring in from there crop. Many farmers wouldn’t cooperate with Stalin which led to him killing them and taking over their farm. The forced collectivization caused a mass famine that killed millions. Stalin ruled with a iron fist. He soon began to build a personality around himself. There was art work, rewritten history books to make him seem more heroic in the revolution. Oh by the way, the government controlled the media as well. WWII In 1939 Stalin and Hitler signed a nonagression pact. He annex parts of Poland and Romania and even invaded Finland. Then Germany broke that pact by invading Russia. The Soviets were not prepared for war. So the Germans almost reached the Russian capital of Moscow. But Stalin and the Red Army drove the Nazis out of Russia about 2 years later. But his son, died in a German war camp before the war was over. Then in 1945 the Red Army took Berlin and dividing it half communist, half democratic. In his final years After WWII his reign did not recede but to only harden. Western influence was a thing of the past in Russia. He turned easter governments into communist states. 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Joseph Stalin was born on December 18th, 1879, in Gori, Georgia. He was the son of a cobbler and a washerwomen. Joseph was a very weak child. He has scars on his face from smallpox whenever he was only seven. HeRead MoreHow Stalin revolutionized Russia and what his life story is. Who is Joseph Stalin, that is the700 Words   |  3 Pages How Stalin revolutionized Russia and what his life story is. Who is Joseph Stalin, that is the question. Joseph Stalin was the dictatorial ruler of the Soviet Union/Russia for nearly thirty years. He revolutionized Russia but killed millions and enforced a strict government. His real name was Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili but he changed it when he was in Russia to Stalin meaning â€Å"man of steel† with stal meaning steel. 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Dangerous and Fateful life began in a small town called Gori, in the south of the empire, near the black sea (Joseph Stalin by: Janet Caulkins). Life was no picnic for Stalin growing up in low class economy, h aving both of his parents being peasants. Soon when he couldn’tRead MoreAdolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin1033 Words   |  5 PagesAdolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin are two of the most sadistic dictators of the past century. They both reigned terror in Europe during World War II. Fueled by rage and anger, Hitler and Stalin rose to power and exploited their beliefs throughout Germany and Russia. Stalin turned Russia into a Communist country while Hitler was turning Germany against Jews. The leadership of these dictators brought death and fear to many who opposed them. 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Using propaganda shows the public what they want to hear and see, even if it’s not true they use this method to trickRead MoreBio of Stalin1535 Words   |  7 PagesVissarionovich Dzhugashvili Ruthless and ambitious, Joseph Stalin grabbed control of the Soviet Union after the death of V.I. Lenin in 1924. As a member of the Bolshevik party, Joseph Stalin (his adopted name, meaning Man of Steel) had an active role in Russias October Revolution in 1917. He maneuvered his way up the communist party hierarchy, and in 1922 was named General Secretary of the Central Committee. By the end of the 1920s, Joseph Stalin had expelled his rival Leon Trotsky, consolidated

Light Rail Network Design

Question: Discuss about the Light Rail Network Design. Answer: Introduction The report is based on designing of a light rail network for Sydney, Australia. The light rail network is from CBD to South East Light Rail. The light rail network gives a unique transport services to people of Sydney. This network will play a significant role in the future transport of Sydney. It has the capability to give reliable as well as sustainable mode of public transport to people of Australia by reducing the citys reliance on the buses (Ney and Gray 2014). The benefits of light rail are that it provides a solution to the traffic congestion as well as pollution. With the introduction of the light rail network will make the travel in as well as out of downtown much more efficient. The purpose of this report is to provide conceptual and preliminary system design of light rail network. It gives the detailed design and development of the network in Sydney, Australia. This design achieves implementation of the minimal operable system is more concern than consideration of the future maximal operable system. Details design and development is done to identify the issues in the stage of preliminary design and resolves those issues and problems in the conceptual design of the network. Recommendations are given to suggest possible techniques so that there must be some development in the light rail network. Conceptual System Design The conceptual system design is analyzed as the expansion of the logical design of the light rail system. It includes the technologies that are applicable for achieving the systems functional requirements. Light Rail System Design Station/platform design: The stations of the light rail have platforms for fast as well as safer passenger boarding. The platforms are designed for level boarding must be 14 inches above the top of rail (Currie and Delbosc 2013). The stations should have equipments and facilities such as shelter, benches, surveillance cameras and information kiosk. Traction electric power infrastructure: Electric power is an advantage of the light rail operations, producing benefits in performance and environmental effects (Vermote et al. 2014). In order to provide power to the light rail, it requires a system infrastructure in the form of traction electrification system, which supplies direct current power to the trains. Signalization system: It is required for efficient as well as safer train operation. It gives understanding of how the system functions in the railway setting. The key elements of the signalization are radio, electric signals and induction by which the train used to communicate with the fixed system (Jin, Teo and Odoni 2015). The light rail system includes of automatic block signals and detection system for the crossing gates at the road crossings. The features of the signalization are cab signals, automatic control of speed and train operation, automatic train stop. Communication System: The secured communication system consists of hard wired and wireless network. The functions of the communication system are radio communication that facilitates communication among the central control, workers of maintenance, security personnel and supervisors (Spiryagin et al. 2014). The public address system helps to keep the passengers informed of special situations. CCTV surveillance system observes the stations and other areas to ensure the security of the passengers and rail network. Automated fare collection system handle the data flow of the transactions (Mulley et al. 2015). The most important is the automatic vehicle location with GPS based system that tracks the locations of the train. Operational Requirements The function of the light rail system is different from bus operations. The light rail system provides its own guideway as well as control of the design of its facilities. The operational requirements consists of peak hour capacity of the light rail line is 24 hours per hour (Mulley, Tsai and Ma 2015).There are multi-line operations so more passengers are carried out in the train. Track layout and configuration The rail system consists of double tracking as the optimal operational environments. The double tracks permit a bidirectional lines in order to operate along the same segment of the track (Currie and Burke 2013). The bi-directional double tracks as well as allows maximum operational flexibility as well as capability to operate at a shorter headways and faster speeds. Storage and maintenance facility A storage as well as maintenance of rolling stock is required. The trains must be stored when they are not in use. Equipments are required for maintaining as well as repairing the trains (MacNeill, Kirkpatrick and Bocchieri 2015). Inside the maintenance structure, there are specialized equipments, pits for inspections to access the trains and storage parts for the train. Signal Priority Algorithm The signal priority system is complex. Simple systems are relied on operator intervention reduces the amount of on-vehicle technology that are required. The red truncations as well as green extension are associated with an active signal priority implementation. The primary difference between the existing preemption system as well as the priority system as it is proposed (Currie and Reynolds 2016). The priority system allows the traffic signals in order to maintain coordination with the adjacent signals while provides preferential treatment for the transit vehicles. Figure 1: Signal Priority Algorithm (Source: Currie and Reynolds 2016, pp-41) Preliminary System Design Preliminary Design Requirement The preliminary design consists of the initial design as well as technical analysis of the system. It consists of transit network integration, traffic impacts, environmental protection, corridor alignment and system design (Olesen and Lassen 2013). From the light rail system analysis, it is found that the network requires improvements in their light rail service. This improvement will increase the speed, improve over on-time performance and minimize the waiting time of customers (Dittmar and Ohland 2012). The improvements will deal with the existing system disputes linked to single-track segments, inadequate signal prioritization, and layout of track and design of roadway that slow down the services. Key components of the light rail network Components Functions Modern vehicles It should carry around 200 passengers. It has low floors with easy access to the wheelchairs. The rail should be of 30 or 40 m long. Track The light rail runs on the steel track. Electrically powered The light rail vehicles are powered from the overhead wires. The vehicles are of emission free (Cruz, Marques and Pereira 2014). Ticketing System The electronic ticketing system should be accessed by using Opal Card. Service Turn up and go service for every two to three minutes in the peak times. There should be real time information at all the stops with showing route as well as stop locations (Bradley 2013). Others Due to the light rail network, it reduces congestion at CBD. Integrated electronic ticketing is available at the outlets as well as on-board (Currie and Reynolds 2016). The stop of the light rail maximizes the accessibility with various doors that are available to alight at the stop. Table 1: Key components of light rail network Functional analysis of the light rail network There are four stages of Sydneys light rail future as follows: Integration of service and improvements: The light rail network is integrated into existing MyZone ticketing system. Opal card should be introduced, and integrated electronic ticketing system is also introduced on the light rail so that it makes the travel easier for the travelers (Wilson 2014). Modernize the existing network: Modern light rail fleet is introduced in order to improve the commuter experience with real time information as well as update of timetables. There should be a construction of 5.6 km inner East light rail extension in order to CBD to South East (Ney and Gray 2014). Delivery of new CBD and southeast service: The CBD bus network is integrated into light rail. The completion of the light rail should connect circular Quay, CBD and southeast. Longer-term investigations: Feasibility investigations of the light rail are done for addition of corridors (Mulley and Tsai 2016) Light rail schemes should be investigated and growth of the light rail network with demand as well as integrated with new urban development. Detail Design and Development Detailed network design requirements The light rail network in CBD will be the next step to make necessary changes in order to transform Sydney. It will unlock the streets, open to the capacity of CBD and then creates livable as well as globally competitive city (Currie and Burke 2013). The Transit Oriented Development (TOD) plans and designs the new starts projects of the light rail network. In order to construct a light rail network, at first the land use factors should be evaluated such as following transit supportive corridor policies, supportive zoning towards the transit stations, land use policies and growth management policies (Currie and Reynolds 2016). Secondly, detailed station plans help to leverage development potential of the TOD. A detailed design planning consists of detailed assessment of the area up to 0.25 to 0.50 mi around each of the stations results into land use plan map of future use of land, description of zoning, urban design plan (Mulley and Tsai 2016). Integration of the Light Rail Transit (LRT) system elements The light rail transit system has the following basic elements such as: Infrastructure: It composed of track ways, storage yards, and stations with associated structures such as tunnels as well as bridges. Rolling stock: It comprises of one or more fleet of the railcars that can carry the passengers along with the track ways. Those cars are designed so that it can assemble into short trains. A curve radius of 25 meters is minimum for new LRT lines as well as longer radii are preferable at permission (Olesen and Lassen 2013). With a maximum gradient of 5 percent is considered as a desirable design. Fixed equipment: It consists of operational as well as a maintenance centre, electric power supply, communications facilities as well as signals. The electric power supply consists of power substations that receive high voltage electrical power and converts into direct current (Wilson 2014). It also includes distribution system that delivers the converted power from substations into individual LRT. Figure 2: Size of the rolling stock of light rail transit (Source: Wilson 2014, pp-7) Design review, evaluation and feedback Light rail network has embedded into the culture of safety of the passengers and reliability of service. National Passenger Survey is done to provide a network-wide picture of the satisfaction level of the customers with rail travel (Currie and Delbosc 2013). From the evaluation and design review of the LRT system, the possible system approaches are considered such as potential requirements for the power accommodation, communication equipment, and safe maintenance access; train dispatching, security system and integration with rolling stock. The consultation groups as well as other stakeholders are planning a workshop so that they can review the conceptual and preliminary design of the LRT network (Mulley et al. 2015). Some design principles are identified such as protection of cultural resources, providing safe facility, maximization to natural environment, applying sustainable design and promotion of smart growth. Conclusion It is concluded that the light rail network will bring to the city as well as people those are living today as well as future. The light rail network will save money as well as time. It reduces the emissions of the greenhouse gases as well as air pollutants. The light rail is the best solution to the long-term transportation challenges the city is facing. The emerging new technologies of light rail shares heavy rail track as well as infrastructure present an opportunity to reduce the cost. It is identified that the functional requirements of the light rail network is that LRT system provides fast as well as reliable transit services. It also provides sufficient capacity. The maintenance and storage section consists of interior cleaning and dispatching of train, which is handled at the baseline station. Recommendations Inspection of the rail equipments: All the required equipments required for the light rail network such as electric power supply, communication and signal system should be investigated properly before using it for the rail design. Evaluation and feedback: The LRT system should be evaluated based on its operations and the feedbacks of the customers are taken so that it helps them to make further improvement in the network. Integration of rail network services: The network should be improved and made it easier and comfortable so that the customers can travel and make their journey safely. References Bradley, C., 2013. Light rail vehicles: design for maintenance and service operation. InAusRAIL PLUS 2013, Driving the Costs out of Rail, 26-28 November 2013, Canberra, ACT, Australia. Cruz, C.O., Marques, R.C. and Pereira, I., 2014. Alternative contractual arrangements for Urban light rail systems: Lessons from two case studies.Journal of Construction Engineering and Management,141(3), p.05014017. Currie, G. and Burke, M., 2013, October. Light rail in Australiaperformance and prospects. InAustralasian Transport Research Forum, Brisbane, Australia. Currie, G. and Delbosc, A., 2013. Exploring comparative ridership drivers of bus rapid transit and light rail transit routes.Journal of Public Transportation,16(2), p.3. Currie, G. and Reynolds, J., 2016. Evaluating Pay-on-Entry Versus Proof-of-Payment Ticketing in Light Rail Transit.Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, (2540), pp.39-45. Dittmar, H. and Ohland, G. eds., 2012.The new transit town: best practices in transit-oriented development. Island Press. Jin, J.G., Teo, K.M. and Odoni, A.R., 2015. Optimizing bus bridging services in response to disruptions of urban transit rail networks.Transportation Science. MacNeill, R., Kirkpatrick, S. and Bocchieri, R., 2015.Development of a Prototype Retrofit Bumper for Improved Light Rail Vehicle (LRV) Safety(No. Transit IDEA Project 77). Mulley, C. and Tsai, C.H.P., 2016. When and how much does new transport infrastructure add to property values? Evidence from the bus rapid transit system in Sydney, Australia.Transport Policy. Mulley, C., Ma, L., Clifton, G.T. and Tanner, M., 2015, September. Are network planning guidelines based on equal access equitable?. InAustralasian Transport Research Forum (ATRF), 37th, 2015, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Mulley, C., Tsai, C.H.P. and Ma, L., 2015, September. Does residential property price benefit from light rail in Sydney?. InAustralasian Transport Research Forum (ATRF), 37th, 2015, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Ney, S.M. and Gray, D., 2014. Western Sydney Light Rail-connecting the people of Western Sydney to the future.CORE 2014: Rail Transport For A Vital Economy, p.111. Olesen, M. and Lassen, C., 2013. Attractive Mobile Corridors-The Power of Light Rail Infrastructures. In4th Pan-american Mobilities Network Conference. Spiryagin, M., Cole, C., Sun, Y.Q., McClanachan, M., Spiryagin, V. and McSweeney, T., 2014.Design and simulation of rail vehicles. CRC Press. Vermote, L., Macharis, C., Hollevoet, J. and Putman, K., 2014. Participatory evaluation of regional light rail scenarios: A Flemish case on sustainable mobility and land-use.Environmental Science Policy,37, pp.101-120. Wilson, J.R., 2014. Fundamentals of systems ergonomics/human factors.Applied ergonomics,45(1), pp.5-13.

Six Ways to Improve Your Nonverbal Communications Essay Example

Six Ways to Improve Your Nonverbal Communications Essay SIX WAYS TO IMPROVE YOUR NONVERBAL COMMUNICATIONS By Vicki Ritts, St. Louis Community College at Florissant Valley and James R. Stein, Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville. It is not only what you say in the classroom that is important, but its how you say it that can make the difference to students. Nonverbal messages are an essential component of communication in the teaching process. Teachers should be aware of nonverbal behavior in the classroom for three major reasons: †¢An awareness of nonverbal behavior will allow you to become better receivers of students messages. You will become a better sender of signals that reinforce learning. †¢This mode of communication increases the degree of the perceived psychological closeness between teacher and student. Some major areas of nonverbal behaviors to explore are: †¢Eye contact †¢Facial expressions †¢Gestures †¢Posture and body orientation †¢Proximity †¢Paralinguistics †¢Humor Eye cont act: Eye contact, an important channel of interpersonal communication, helps regulate the flow of communication. And it signals interest in others. Furthermore, eye contact with audiences increases the speakers credibility. Teachers who make eye contact open the flow of communication and convey interest, concern, warmth and credibility. Facial expressions: Smiling is a powerful cue that transmits: †¢Happiness †¢Friendliness †¢Warmth †¢Liking †¢Affiliation Thus, if you smile frequently you will be perceived as more likable, friendly, warm and approachable. Smiling is often contagious and students will react favorably and learn more. Gestures: If you fail to gesture while speaking, you may be perceived as boring, stiff and unanimated. A lively and animated teaching style captures students attention, makes the material more interesting, facilitates learning and provides a bit of entertainment. Head nods, a form of gestures, communicate positive reinforcement to students and indicate that you are listening. Posture and body orientation: You communicate numerous messages by the way you walk, talk, stand and sit. Standing erect, but not rigid, and leaning slightly forward communicates to students that you are approachable, receptive and friendly. Furthermore, interpersonal closeness results when you and your students face each other. We will write a custom essay sample on Six Ways to Improve Your Nonverbal Communications specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Six Ways to Improve Your Nonverbal Communications specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Six Ways to Improve Your Nonverbal Communications specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Speaking with your back turned or looking at the floor or ceiling should be avoided; it communicates disinterest to your class. Proximity: Cultural norms dictate a comfortable distance for interaction with students. You should look for signals of discomfort caused by invading students space. Some of these are: †¢Rocking †¢Leg swinging †¢Tapping †¢Gaze aversion Typically, in large college classes space invasion is not a problem. In fact, there is usually too much distance. To counteract this, move around the classroom to increase interaction with your students. Increasing proximity enables you to make better eye contact and increases the opportunities for students to speak. Paralinguistics: This facet of nonverbal communication includes such vocal elements as: †¢Tone †¢Pitch †¢Rhythm †¢Timbre †¢Loudness †¢Inflection For maximum teaching effectiveness, learn to vary these six elements of your voice. One of the major criticisms is of instructors who speak in a monotone. Listeners perceive these instructors as boring and dull. Students report that they learn less and lose interest more quickly when listening to teachers who have not learned to modulate their voices. Humor: Humor is often overlooked as a teaching tool, and it is too often not encouraged in college classrooms. Laughter releases stress and tension for both instructor and student. You should develop the ability to laugh at yourself and encourage students to do the same. It fosters a friendly classroom environment that facilitates learning. (Lou Holtz wrote that when his players felt successful he always observed the presence of good humor in the locker room. ) Obviously, adequate knowledge of the subject matter is crucial to your success; however, its not the only crucial element. Creating a climate that facilitates learning and retention demands good nonverbal and verbal skills. To improve your nonverbal skills, record your speaking on video tape. Then ask a colleague in communications to suggest refinements THE TRUE TEACHER ACCEPTS ALL STUDENTS By Ernest O. Melby from The Teacher and Learning A teacher says: I can accept my good students, those who behave and do good work, but I cant accept those who do not work, who have the wrong attitude and who cause me trouble. They forget that its the acceptance of all that gives power to the teacher. In fact, it is in relation to students who are difficult that the teachers true qualities are demonstrated. We all find it easy to accept those who lend themselves to our designs. It is in their relationship to those who cause them trouble, who are dirty and poorly dressed, and who fail to achieve that teachers prove their beliefs. It is the essence of the point of view here presented that only a complete gift of oneself makes the teacher an artist. Teaching is a jealous profession; it is not a sideline. This is not only because of the problem of time, nor because of the impact of lesser efforts on pupils: it is because of the effect on the teacher himself. It is only as we give fully of ourselves that we can become our best selves. Thus halfway measures and attitudes of whatever kind reduce our effectiveness. When we ask the teacher to give himself fully to his students, to his colleagues, to his community, and to humanity, we are thus only asking him to be maximally effective. Moreover, it is only as he gives himself that he can experience completely the joys and satisfactions of being a teacher. In this situation he is in the same position as any artist. Frustrated artists are often those who for one reason or another are unable or unwilling to make a complete gift of themselves to their art. Similarly, the unhappiest teachers are those who bemoan the weaknesses of their pupils and the conditions under which they work and who fail to sense that it is their own half-hearted efforts that defraud them. One measure of the teachers willingness to give of himself is his accessibility to his students, his willingness to spend time with them. One difficulty here is the narrow conception that often prevails about what it means to teach. To teach means more than to lecture or explain before a group of students. The best teachers influence their students more in their personal, individual contacts with them than in strict classroom situations. If teaching and learning are complementary processes, if the teacher is to teach by learning and if his teaching is to be directed toward an individual, he must know that individual. And how is he to know that individual if he spends little or no time with him alone? Another illusion defeats us. It is that there is some magic in lecturing and in the hearing of recitations. We want as much time for this as possible. We begrudge taking time to work with individual pupils. Yet we know very little about the actual effectiveness of what we do. Is it not at least possible that our classroom work would be greatly increased in effectiveness if only we spent more time with our pupils as individuals? We seem to be obsessed with teaching. We know that no one can educate another person, that all of us must educate ourselves. The teachers role is that of a helper in this process. The question is: How can we best help? GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MOTIVATION Basic principles of motivation exist that are applicable to learning in any situation. 1. The environment can be used to focus the students attention on what needs to be learned. Teachers who create warm and accepting yet business-like (appropriate) atmospheres will promote persistent effort and favorable attitudes toward learning. This strategy will be successful in children and in adults. Interesting visual aids, such as booklets, posters, or practice equipment, motivate learners by capturing their attention and curiosity. 2. Incentives motivate learning. Incentives include privileges and receiving praise from the instructor. The instructor determines an incentive that is likely to motivate an individual at a particular time. In a general learning situation, self-motivation without rewards will not succeed. Students must find satisfaction in learning based on the understanding that the goals are useful to them or, less commonly, based on the pure enjoyment of exploring new things. . Internal motivation is longer lasting and more self-directive than is external motivation, which must be repeatedly reinforced by praise or concrete rewards. Some individuals particularly children of certain ages and some adults have little capacity for internal motivation and must be guided and reinforced constantly. The use of incentives is based on the principle that learning occurs m ore effectively when the student experiences feelings of satisfaction. Caution should be exercised in using external rewards when they are not absolutely necessary. Their use may be followed by a decline in internal motivation. 4. Learning is most effective when an individual is ready to learn, that is, when one wants to know something. Sometimes the students readiness to learn comes with time, and the instructors role is to encourage its development. If a desired change in behavior is urgent, the instructor may need to supervised directly to ensure that the desired behavior occurs. If a student is not ready to learn, he or she may not be reliable in following instructions and therefore must be supervised and have the instructions repeated again and again. . Motivation is enhanced by the way in which the instructional material is organized. In general, the best organized material makes the information meaningful to the individual. One method of organization includes relating new tasks to those already known. Other ways to relay meaning are to determine whether the persons being taught understand the final outcome desired and instruct them to com pare and contrast ideas. None of the techniques will produce sustained motivation unless the goals are realistic for the learner. The basic learning principle involved is that success is more predictably motivating than is failure. Ordinarily, people will choose activities of intermediate uncertainty rather than those that are difficult (little likelihood of success) or easy (high probability of success). For goals of high value there is less tendency to choose more difficult conditions. Having learners assist in defining goals increases the probability that they will understand them and want to reach them. However, students sometimes have unrealistic notions about what they can accomplish. Possibly they do not understand the precision with which a skill must be carried out or have the depth of knowledge to master some material. To identify realistic goals, instructors must be skilled in assessing a students readiness or a students progress toward goals. 1. Because learning requires changed in beliefs and behavior, it normally produces a mild level of anxiety. This is useful in motivating the individual. However, severe anxiety is incapacitating. A high degree of stress is inherent in some educational situations. If anxiety is severe, the individuals perception of what is going on around him or her is limited. Instructors must be able to identify anxiety and understand its effect on learning. They also have a responsibility to avoid causing severe anxiety in learners by setting ambiguous of unrealistically high goals for them. 2. It is important to help each student set goals and to provide informative feedback regarding progress toward the goals. Setting a goal demonstrates an intention to achieve and activates learning from one day to the next. It also directs the students activities toward the goal and offers an opportunity to experience success. 3. Both affiliation and approval are strong motivators. People seek others with whom to compare their abilities, opinions, and emotions. Affiliation can also result in direct anxiety reduction by the social acceptance and the mere presence of others. However, these motivators can also lead to conformity, competition, and other behaviors that may seem as negative. 4. Many behaviors result from a combination of motives. It is recognized that no grand theory of motivation exists. However, motivation is so necessary for learning that strategies should be planned to rganize a continuous and interactive motivational dynamic for maximum effectiveness. The general principles of motivation are interrelated. A single teaching action can use many of them simultaneously. Finally, it should be said that an enormous gap exists between knowing that learning must be motivated and identifying the specific motivational components of any particular act. Instructors must focus on learning patterns of motiv ation for an individual or group, with the realization that errors will be common. MOTIVATING STUDENTS By Barbara Gross Davis, University of California, Berkeley. From Tools for Teaching, Some students seem naturally enthusiastic about learning, but many need-or expect-their instructors to inspire, challenge, and stimulate them: Effective learning in the classroom depends on the teachers ability to maintain the interest that brought students to the course in the first place (Ericksen, 1978, p. 3). Whatever level of motivation your students bring to the classroom will be transformed, for better or worse, by what happens in that classroom. Unfortunately, there is no single magical formula for motivating students. Many factors affect a given students motivation to work and to learn (Bligh, 1971; Sass, 1989): interest in the subject matter, perception of its usefulness, general desire to achieve, self-confidence and self-esteem, as well as patience and persistence. And, of course, not all students are motivated by the same values, needs, desires, or wants. Some of your students will be motivated by the approval of others, some by overcoming challenges. Researchers have begun to identify those aspects of the teaching situation that enhance students self-motivation (Lowman, 1984; Lucas, 1990; Weinert and Kluwe, 1987; Bligh, 1971). To encourage students to become self-motivated independent learners, instructors can do the following: †¢Give frequent, early, positive feedback that supports students beliefs that they can do well. †¢Ensure opportunities for students success by assigning (appropriate) tasks that are neither too easy nor too difficult. †¢Help students find personal meaning and value in the material. †¢Create an atmosphere that is open and positive. †¢Help students feel that they are valued members of a learning community. Research has also shown that good everyday teaching practices can do more to counter student apathy than special efforts to attack motivation directly (Ericksen, 1978). Most students respond positively to a well-organized course taught by an enthusiastic instructor who has a genuine interest in students and what they learn. Thus activities you undertake to promote learning will also enhance students motivation. General Strategies Capitalize on students existing needs. Students learn best when incentives for learning in a classroom satisfy their own motives for enrolling in the course. Some of the needs your students may bring to the classroom are the need to learn something in order to complete a particular task or activity, the need to seek new experiences, the need to perfect skills, the need to overcome challenges, the need to become competent, the need to succeed and do well, the need to feel involved and to interact with other people. Satisfying such needs is rewarding in itself, and such rewards sustain learning more effectively than do grades. Design assignments, in-class activities, and discussion questions to address these kinds of needs. Source: McMillan and Forsyth, 1991) Make students active participants in learning. Students learn by doing, making, writing, designing, creating, solving. Passivity dampens students motivation and curiosity. Pose questions. Dont tell students something when you can ask them. Encourage students to suggest approaches to a problem or to guess the results of an experiment. Use small group work. See Leading a Discussion, Supp lements and Alternatives to Lecturing, and Collaborative Learning for methods that stress active participation. (Source: Lucas, 1990) Ask students to analyze what makes their classes more or less motivating. Sass (1989) asks his classes to recall two recent class periods, one in which they were highly motivated and one in which their motivation was low. Each student makes a list of specific aspects of the two classes that influenced his or her level of motivation, and students then meet in small groups to reach consensus on characteristics that contribute to high and low motivation. In over twenty courses, Sass reports, the same eight characteristics emerge as major contributors to student motivation: †¢Instructors enthusiasm †¢Relevance of the material †¢Organization of the course †¢Appropriate difficulty level of the material Active involvement of students †¢Variety †¢Rapport between teacher and students †¢Use of appropriate, concrete, and unders tandable examples. Incorporating Instructional Behaviors That Motivate Students Hold high but realistic expectations for your students. Research has shown that a teachers expectations have a powerful effect on a students performance. If you act as though you expect your students to be motivated, hardworking, and interested in the course, they are more likely to be so. Set realistic expectations for students when you make assignments, give presentations, conduct discussions, and grade examinations. Realistic in this context means that your standards are high enough to motivate students to do their best work but not so high that students will inevitably be frustrated in trying to meet those expectations. To develop the drive to achieve, students need to believe that achievement is possible -which means that you need to provide early opportunities for success. (Sources: American Psychological Association, 1992; Bligh, 1971; Forsyth and McMillan, 1991 -1 Lowman, 1984) Help students set achievable goals for themselves. Failure to attain unrealistic goals can disappoint and frustrate students. Encourage students to focus on their continued improvement, not just on their grade on any one test or assignment. Help students evaluate their progress by encouraging them to critique their own work, analyze their strengths, and work on their weaknesses. For example, consider asking students to submit self-evaluation forms with one or two assignments. (Sources: Cashin, 1979; Forsyth and McMillan, 1991) Tell students what they need to do to succeed in your course. Dont let your students struggle to figure out what is expected of them. Reassure students that they can do well in your course, and tell them exactly what they must do to succeed. Say something to the effect that If you can handle the examples on these problem sheets, you can pass the exam. People who have trouble with these examples can ask me for extra help. Or instead of saying, Youre way behind, tell the student, Here is one way you could go about learning the material. How can I help you? (Sources: Cashin, 1979; Tiberius, 1990) Strengthen students self-motivation. Avoid messages that reinforce your power as an instructor or that emphasize extrinsic rewards. Instead of saying, I require, you must, or you should, stress I think you will find. . . or I will be interested in your reaction. (Source: Lowman, 1990) Avoid creating intense competition among students. Competition produces anxiety, which can interfere with learning. Reduce students tendencies to compare themselves to one another. Bligh (1971) reports that students are more attentive, display better comprehension, produce more work, and are more favorable to the teaching method when they work cooperatively in groups rather than compete as individuals. Refrain from public criticisms of students performance and from comments or activities that pit students against each other. (Sources: Eble, 1988; Forsyth and McMillan, 1991). Be enthusiastic about your subject. An instructors enthusiasm is a crucial factor in student motivation. If you become bored or apathetic, students will too. Typically, an instructors enthusiasm comes from confidence, excitement about the content, and genuine pleasure in teaching. If you find yourself uninterested in the material, think back to what attracted you to the field and bring those aspects of the subject matter to life for your students. Or challenge yourself to devise the most exciting way to present the material, however dull the material itself may seem to you. Structuring the Course to Motivate Students Work from students strengths and interests. Find out why students are enrolled in your course, how they feel about the subject matter, and what their expectations are. Then try to devise examples, case studies, or assignments that relate the course content to students interests and experiences. For instance, a chemistry professor might devote some lecture time to examining the contributions of chemistry to resolving environmental problems. Explain how the content and objectives of your course will help students achieve their educational, professional, or personal goals. (Sources: Brock, 1976; Cashin, 1979; Lucas, 1990) When possible, let students have some say in choosing what will be studied. Give students options on term papers or other assignments (but not on tests). Let students decide between two locations for the field trip, or have them select which topics to explore in greater depth. If possible, include optional or alternative units in the course. Sources: Ames and Ames, 1990; Cashin, 1979; Forsyth and McMillan, 1991; Lowman, 1984). Increase the difficulty of the material as the semester progresses. Give students opportunities to succeed at the beginning of the semester. Once students feel they can succeed, you can gradually increase the difficulty level. If assignments and exams include easier and harder questions, every student will have a chance to experience success as well as challenge. (Source: Cashin, 1 979) Vary your teaching methods. Variety reawakens students involvement in the course and their motivation. Break the routine by incorporating a variety of teaching activities and methods in your course: role playing, debates, brainstorming, discussion, demonstrations, case studies, audiovisual presentations, guest speakers, or small group work. (Source: Forsyth and McMillan, 1991) De-emphasizing Grades Emphasize mastery and learning rather than grades. Ames and Ames (1990) report on two secondary school math teachers. One teacher graded every homework assignment and counted homework as 30 percent of a students final grade. The second teacher told students to spend a fixed amount of time on their homework (thirty minutes a night) and to bring questions to class about problems they could not complete. This teacher graded homework as satisfactory or unsatisfactory, gave students the opportunity to redo their assignments, and counted homework as 10 percent of the final grade. Although homework was a smaller part of the course grade, this second teacher was more successful in motivating students to turn in their homework. In the first class, some students gave up rather than risk low evaluations of their abilities. In the second class, students were not risking their self-worth each time they did their homework but rather were attempting to learn. Mistakes were viewed as acceptable and something to learn from. Researchers recommend de-emphasizing grading by eliminating complex systems of credit points; they also advise against trying to use grades to control nonacademic behavior (for example, lowering grades for missed classes) (Forsyth and McMillan, 1991; Lowman 1990). Instead, assign ungraded written work, stress the personal satisfaction of doing assignments, and help students measure their progress. Design tests that encourage the kind of learning you want students to achieve. Many students will learn whatever is necessary to get the grades they desire. If you base your tests on memorizing details, students will focus on memorizing facts. If your tests stress the synthesis and evaluation of information, students will be motivated to practice those skills when they study. (Source: McKeachie, 1986) Avoid using grades as threats. As McKeachie (1986) points out, the threat of low grades may prompt some students to work hard, but other students may resort to academic dishonesty, excuses for late work, and other counterproductive behavior. Motivating Students by Responding to Their Work Give students feedback as quickly as possible. Return tests and papers promptly, and reward success publicly and immediately. Give students some indication of how well they have done and how to improve. Rewards can be as simple as saying a students response was good, with an indication of why it was good, or mentioning the names of contributors: Cherrys point about pollution really synthesized the ideas we had been discussing. (Source: Cashin, 1979) Reward success. Both positive and negative comments influence motivation, but research consistently indicates that students are more affected by positive feedback and success. Praise builds students self-confidence, competence, and self-esteem. Recognize sincere efforts even if the product is less than stellar. If a students performance is weak, let the student know that you believe he or she can improve and succeed over time. (Sources: Cashin, 1979; Lucas, 1990) Introduce students to the good work done by their peers. Share the ideas, knowledge, and accomplishments of individual students with the class as a whole: †¢Pass out a list of research topics chosen by students so they will know whether others are writing papers of interest to them. †¢Make available copies of the best papers and essay exams. †¢Provide class time for students to read papers or assignments submitted by classmates. †¢Have students write a brief critique of a classmates paper. †¢Schedule a brief talk by a student who has experience or who is doing a research paper on a topic relevant to your lecture. Be specific when giving negative feedback. Negative feedback is very powerful and can lead to a negative class atmosphere. Whenever you identify a students weakness, make it clear that your comments relate to a particular task or performance, not to the student as a person. Try to cushion negative comments with a compliment about aspects of the task in which the student succeeded. (Source: Cashin, 1979) Avoid demeaning comments. Many students in your class may be anxious about their performance and abilities. Be sensitive to how you phrase your comments and avoid offhand remarks that might prick their feelings of inadequacy.